Medieval Numismatics of Navarre: Problems about the first emissions.

Translation of part of an article published in Spanish: “Numismática Medieval de Navarra I. Gaceta Numismática 185; Junio 2013: pp. 25-56” 

The Navarrese numismatics, both from the Middle Age and from the Modern Age, is an unexplored field long to be investigated into. Navarre was a little kingdom with few economic resources, so few coins are normally found because foreign currency was frequently used; in contrast there is a rich documentation (often unknown) which is preserved in the Navarrese General Record Office, main referent for further investigations.

The medieval numismatics is not an exact science and it makes difficult for some coins to be attributed to specific kings, even at recent ages. We have to bear in mind that coins were used as propaganda or to sustain territorial claims, because of that, the interpretation must be found in the sociopolitical context of the time. There are numerous examples, such as the Navarrese King Charles II "The Bad", who issued his coins with the tittle of Earl of Evreux, just when the French king gained this territory. Many emissions of Ferdinandus "The Catholic King" were made in later age, being inmovilized types that lasted long in time etc...

On the other hand, some coins described and drawn in the late XVIII^th Century, have been copied from author to author up to the present (but these pieces have not been seen during this time), which doesn't allow us to prove their existence.

The biggest dificulties and  different opinions about the Navarrese Numismatic field, have arisen with regard to those considered the first emissions until recent times.

Maybe because of the influence of the traditional Historiography where the Christian Iberic Kingdoms were the heritage of Sancho III "The Great" of Navarre,  the first coin was thought to have been emited by this king, being the later coins Aragonese, Castillian and Navarrese, an heritage of the first and singular coin, a unique piece preserved in the National Archeological Museum (VVAAA, 1999), which was for long considered the first coin emited in the kingdom of Pamplona/Navarre,. This coin, shows in its obverse a face looking to the right and the legend "+IMPERATOR" and on its reverse a pedestal holds up a cross with symetrical floral ornaments, and with the legend "NAIARA" (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Coin with legend "IMPERATOR / NAIARA" attributed to King Alfonso VII of Castile and Leon.

This piece was firstly described by Heiss, 1869, who attributed it to Sancho III "the Great". He also had a second piece (already known by Gaillard) with a similar type and legend reverse with "GARCIAREX" in the obverse. Both authors attributed it to Garcia III. Poey d'Avant (1860) reproduced this last piece, but considering it as a piece of Garcia IV and said, with reference to the attribution to Garcia III: "Cette date me paraît trop reculée pour le style de cette monnaie". Caron (1882/84) and Dieudonée (1936) copied this piece with legend "IMPERATOR/ NAIARA" following Heiss' attribution, although Boudeau (1913) remarks in this regard: "les premières monnaies connues sont attibuées à Garcia Ramirez (1134-1150)".

According to these French authors (Gaillard, Poey d'Avant, Heiss and Caron) the reverse legend would be "NAVARA" because they consider that the second and third letters are linked (as frecuently occurs in coin of Sancho Ramirez with legend "ARAGON" and also in those attributed to Sancho VI, where the letters "A" and "R" are linked).

If we consider the legend NAVARA, the attribution to Sancho III and García III is not feasible, because the word Navarra appears for the first time as a dependant earldom part of the Pamplona kingdom at the age of Sancho Ramírez, substituting the name of the kingdom on the coins at the time of García IV (1134-1150), and later in royal documents. Several authors such as Campaner (1891) and Sánchez Albornoz, 1928, followed Heiss' attributions with reference to the coin whose legend was "IMPERATOR/NAIARA", but Menendez Pidal (1929) went further, and  considered the legend NAIARA as Nájera. This criteria was also followed by P. Germán de Iruña (1935).

According to the second coin mentioned (attributed to Garcia and with the same reverse), Berradondo (1932) and Beltran (1951, 1953) consider this to be Garcia III's one. The last author published a new item with similar characteristics and ARAGON legend in the reverse (Fig. 2c). This fact reinforced this attribution, because this monarch not only reigned over Pamplona but also over Aragon, whereas Garcia IV only dominated the Navarrese kingdom.

Figure 2: Coins with legend "IMPERATOR" Y "GARCIA" on the face, and "NAIARA" or "ARAGON" on the back.

     Gil Farrés (1955), following Poey d'Avant’s hypothesis, attribute the piece with legend IMPERATOR/NAIARA to Alfonso VII of Castillia-Leon, subsequently, the coin whose legend was GARCIA REX/NAIARA, to García IV (it is clear that the date of both pieces, if not the same, is close in time). This new proposal had to face great opposition among the numismatic researchers at that time and it was refused early  by Thomsen (1956), so most of the later authors have considered the classical attributions, considering Sancho III as the first monarch who minted coins in the Peninsular Christian kingdoms  (Mateu y Llopis (1946, 1955, 1969); Crusafont & Balaguer (1986);  Jusué & Ramirez (1987); Pérez (1988); Ibáñez (1990), Ibáñez et al. (1991); Crusafont (1989, 1991, 1992) & Beltrán (1999)).

Recently, Gil Farrés' hypothesis has been reassumed, considering the affinities of the face that is shown on the coin attributed to Sancho III (Fig. 3), similar to other coins of Garcia IV, so that issues of Sancho IV "of Peñalén" are desestimated. Subsequently, the beginning of the monetary emissions in the Peninsular Christian kingdoms must be placed at the age of Sancho V Ramírez, probably on a date close in time to the anexation of the kingdom of Pamplona (1076) and the establishment of the Jaca statute ("fuero") (1077). The anexation of Pamplona, could have been the main cause for the massive emissions of Sancho Ramírez, as it would take place a few years later, after the conquest of Toledo by Alfonso VI, when the Castillian-Leonese coins firstly appeared. Recently the similarities and differences between the first Castillian and Aragonese issues have been brought to light (Ibáñez, 2000). The attributions to the coins with legend NAIARA can be differenciated: the ones with  legend IMPERATOR in the obverse, to Alfonso VII; and those with  legend GARCIA REX, to García IV. This last hypothesis has been followed in recent works, Ramírez (1996, 1999). Other authors remark the problem, but they neither stick the traditional theories nor adduce new ideas (Beltrán (1999); Rodriguez (1994)).

Figure 3: Affinities of the face that is shown on the coin attributed to Sancho III (a), and other of a coin of Garcia IV (b).

Considering the coin with legend IMPERATOR/NAIARA as if it were from Najera, it would belong to the time of Alfonso VII (Naiara is the most common way to designed Najera in the reign of Alfonso VII (Ibáñez, 1993). At earliest, this coin could be attributed to the time of Alfonso "The Fighter", who had a political dispute for this village againts his former wife Urraca and her son, the future Alfonso VII. The interpretation of Najera in the coin of Garcia IV of Navarre causes bigger trouble, because even if he never reigned in Aragon, a royal document from Alfonso VII where Garcia IV is named "rex aragonensis" exists (Fig.4).

Figure 4: Document of Alfonso VII, where García IV was named "Rex Garsia Aragonensis" dated on 4^th July 1144, written due to the marriage between the Navarrese king and the Emperor's illegitimate daughter (Cathedral of Oviedo).

If this legend is interpreted as Navarra, these attributions also agree, with no trouble when it comes to Garcia IV, and the one of Alfonso VII can be attributed to the years 1134-1135,  the time when Garcia, King of Navarre showed respect to the Emperor, exactly in Najera. So the legend NAIARA can be understood at the same time as Najera/Navarra (this similarity between both forms often causes confusion in many documents). If the die stamp artisan produced this multiple interpretation legend intentionately, he never imagined how many discussions and disputes this legend would provoke after eight centuries!

As Sancho V Ramírez was the only Aragonese monarch with this name, the coins with legend Aragon or Aragonensis do not cause any trouble. Whereas Moret (1666) correctly attributes this coin to Sancho V Ramírez, Lastanosa (1681) considers that the item with legend Aragon or Iacca are of Sancho Abarca, king of Pamplona between the years 970-994. On the contrary, in the kigdom of Pamplona/Navarra there were several monarchs whose names were Sancho, for instance Sancho III "The Great", Sancho IV "of Peñalen", Sancho V Ramírez, Sancho VI "The Wise" and Sancho VII "The Strong". With legend NAVARA there are several different types with the name "SANCIVS", some of them are conflictive when it comes to their attribution. Quite a rare piece (Fig. 5) was firstly described on the Vidal Quadras' collection (1892) attributing it to Garcia V Ramírez with the characteristics of a similar reverse with a horizontal and broken legend, similar to that of the emissions of Sancho Ramírez, Peter I and Alfonso I. This attribution has been widely followed by many authors (Mateu y Llopis (1944), Beltrán (1951), Gil Farrés (1955, 1976), Thomsen (1956), Álvarez Burgos et al. (1980), Ibáñez et al. (1991)), while others attributed it to Sancho IV (1054-1076)  (Ibáñez et al. (1988), Crusafont & Balaguer (1988), Ibáñez (1990), Crusafont (1992)). Bearing in mind that the name Navarra appeared for the first time at the age of Sancho V Ramírez, we can discard this attribution in previous epochs. It is not probable that this coin was coined by Sancho V when the official name of the kingdom was Pamplona. Probably this coin is an early emission of Sancho VI "The Wise", as it was recently proposed (Ibáñez, 1993, 1994). In the same way other coins with the name "Sancho" have had other interpretations which will be commented later.

Figure 5: First issue of Sancho VI, imitating coins Sancho V of Aragon.

First Aragonese and Pamplonese emissions.

First Aragonese and Pamplonese emissions.

Translation of part of  an article published in Spanish: “Numismática Medieval de Navarra I. Gaceta Numismática 185; Junio 2013: pp. 25-56” 

According to documents, coins were well known elements before the XI^th century, even if the first local issues appeared at the late quarter of this century. Previously, the silver Andalusi coin was normally used (some times by weight). The dirhems, commonly named in christian documents as "argenteos", were found at random in Navarrese settings, also some pieces of the northern christian kingdoms were occasionaly introduced by pilgrims who transited  St. Iacob Route. The hispanic dirhems, as well as the muslims gold dinars (morabetinos), would be used long after local currency was available. The silver and gold coins were introduced by commercial relations and the payment of "parias". Sometimes, although the kingdom had its own currency, in rural areas the exchange of goods was a day to day practice (Fig. 1).

Fig.1.- Treasure of muslims dírhems of San Andrés de Ordoiz (Estella, Navarre, Spain).

Among Sancho Ramirez's coins we can find two different types; the first one presents an obverse where there is a face with a teared eye shape, the hair is resolved using wavy lines, and at the base of the neck there are three dotted lines that represent the beginning of the clothing or mail collar (Fig. 2; Pl. Ib,b’). It is a rather unusual piece, in the reverse it shows a cross on a stand and legend ARAGONENSI in deniers and ARAGONENSIS in obols, being this a coin type  of which few samples are known.

Fig. 2.- Denier and obol of Sancho V Ramírez, with leyend ARAGONENSI(S).

The most common type, according to the terminology used in contemporany documents, called "jaques", shows in the obverse a face looking to the right or left, and in the reverse there is a cross standing on a long pedestal with simetrical side ornaments, this figure has been interpreted as a cruciferous tree.

Even if the most usual legend is ARAGON (figs. 3; Pl. Ic-j), there is also a rare variant with legend MONSON (Fig. 4; Pl. Il) and an other one with legend IACCA (Fig. 5; Pl. Ik). This last coin has been dated from the time when the local privileges were given to Jaca, although this coin was probably minted at a later age, because it is a rude imitation of a tardive emission. These last ones could have been minted between 1076 and 1077. According to the density of ornaments in the reverse, and the variants of the faces, six different kinds with legend “Aragon” have been identified, including several subtypes both deniers and obols (semideniers), the latest ones show a different pattern in the reverse, with a semicircular legend instead of a horizontal one.

Fig. 3- Deniers and obols of Sancho V Ramírez, with leyend ARAGON.

Fig.4.- Denier of Sancho V Ramírez, with leyend MONSON.

Fig. 5.- Denier of Sancho V Ramírez, with leyend IACCA.

The silver proportion in the first issues of Sancho V Ramírez (Pl. Ic, d) is high, the 50 per cent is silver and the rest is copper, during his reign this proportion decreased to a 33.3 % ("cuaternal" denier, this is four silver deniers in 12). The origen of this great amount of silver, needed to produce these important emissions, might have been this metal reservoir obtained through the payments of the "parias", and also through the explotation of the silver mines in Bielsa (Huesca). The gold percentage as traze elements in the silver/copper of these first issues, appears in important amount, from 2.5 to 7.3 parts per thousand, ciphers these, that reach values from 7 to 16 parts per thousand if we only consider the gold concentration exclusively refered to the amount of silver that the coin contain (we presume that the gold would "pollute" the silver but not the copper). These amounts are slightly higher than the ones appeared in later coins, such as Alfonso XI of Leon’s deniers (1188-1230) which have a gold concentration of a maximum of one per thousand. During Sancho V Ramírez’ reign, we can find counterfeit coins, made in copper covered with a layer of a mixture of mercury and silver.

            It remains a gold enigmatic piece, a "mancuso" of Sancho V Ramirez, first described in 1958 by Pio Beltran (Fig. 6; Pl. Ia). We can assume that emissions from gold coins made ​​at this time, would be imitation, in types and weights, the Muslim gold coin in circulation, but it is a coin of similar size to the silver money. Changes the obverse legend, Pio Beltran  interpreted as SANCI  (I) N (OST) RI M (AN) C (USUS), but in reality is "+ SA NCINDIE I", being difficult to interpret the last letters of the legend. This piece, weighing 1.95 grams was offered to the National Archaeological Museum, but Gil Farres (1976) considered it a forgery:.

 “Un supuesto Mancuso, “descubierto” recientemente, y dado a conocer en una revista española es falso… Así consta en el Informe que nos solicitó la superioridad. Esta calificación también se ha incluido en el Rapport de Edad Media que nos encargó la Comisión Internacional de Numismática para el Congreso Internacional de 1973, celebrado en Nueva York. 

            Recently, a second specimen, with the same obverse and reverse dies, has appeared, and we can not certify its authenticity, in the absence of more information.

Fig. 6.- Gold “Mancuso” of Sancho V Ramírez.

The first emissions of the king to be Peter I, were made during his father's reign, such as a result of a granting that could be considered as feudal, and probably also extended to his stepbrother Alfonso, future Alfonso I the "Fighter". These coins are mentioned in documents in the year 1086, but they could have been minted the previous year, when Peter I was named king of Sobrarbe and Ribagorza, these first coins are the scarce types (Fig. 7; Pl. IIa), that after Monzon's conquest in 1089, were minted in bigger amounts taking the name of the village. Either the face and the figure in the reverse are similar to a type of Sancho V Ramírez, minted more frecuently with legend Aragon (Plate I,i) and also with legend Monson (Fig. 8; Pl. IIb). Because of this, the mentioned coins were made at this age (about 1086, the ones with legend Aragon, and in 1089 the ones minted in Monzón).

Recently, in a treasure found in Zafranales (Fraga, Huesca), which contained coins of Sancho V Ramírez, one coin of Peter I with legend PETRVS SANCIVSREX appeared and was probably minted before 1094 (Fig. 9; Pl. IIc).

Fig. 7.- Denier of Pedro I, with leyend PETRVSSANCII/ARAGON.

Fig. 8.- Denier of Pedro I, with leyend PETRVSSANCII/MONSON.

Fig. 9.- Denier of Pedro I, with leyend PETRVSSANCIVSREX/ARAGON.

At the beginning of Peter I’s reign (1094-1104) coins were scarcely issued (Fig. 10; Pl. IId & d') similar in typology to the last "jaqueses" deniers of Sancho V Ramírez. One coin of this characteristics appeared in a treasure of coins of Sancho Ramírez and Alfonso VI. Soon this typology was abandoned and a new one began, showing modifications, both in the design of the royal face (with a typical bun), and in the reverse figure (Fig. 11; Pl. IIe-f). In these abundant emissions (deniers, and obols followed the same typology as deniers). We can find two variants, although typologicaly similar, they show great differences in the silver proportion. The first emission are "ternales", this is, 3 silver deniers in 12 (25% in silver), the next ones, quite similar, are different, because they have a dot in front of the face and two dots or signals in both sides of the reverse cross. This minting (type P-III.2) has got less weight and value, so this reflects an important monetary devaluation in a short period of time, of about 30 years  since the first emissions of Sancho V Ramírez (aproximately 77% taking into account the weight and silver proportion loss).

Fig. 10.- Denier and obol of Pedro I, with leyend PETRVSREX/ARAGON.

Fig. 11.- Denier of Pedro I, with “bun”. Leyend PETRVSREX/ARAGON.

When Alfonso I (1104-1134) reached the crown, an improvement in the coins took place, and then two new types were minted (deniers and obols), the first kind following a model established by Sancho V Ramírez, in whose obverse there is a big cross on a stand and legend "Aragonensis" (figs. 12; Pl. IIIa-d). Coins of this type are commonly found in places such as Monte Cantabria and San Adrian tunnel. The second sort of coins (Fig. 13; Pl. IIIe) followed the model established by Peter I (type P-III), increasing the amount of silver up to 20% and the weight up to 39%. This improvement in Alfonso I's emissions, justifies the frecuent reference in documents to these coins as "moneta nova". On the contrary, between 1109 and 1114, Alfonso I minted in Toledo, some deniers with low silver percentage, in whose obverse there is a face with no ornaments and legend ANFVSREX, and in the reverse, there is a cross with stars in the opposite cuadrants (between the cross arms) and legend TOLECTI at the beginning and later TOLLETA. These coins, named "pepiones" were originally minted by Alfonso I "the Fighter", keeping the same typology and low silver proportion for over a century and a half. There are other pieces attributed to Alfonso I produced in Castillian mints that sometimes lacked in minting mark or legend, fact this, that often made their attibution a bit uncertain, despite several proposals made in the 50's.

Fig. 12.- Deniers and obol of Alfonso I, with leyend ARAGONENSIS.

Fig. 13.- Denier and obol of Alfonso I, with leyend ARAGON.

The discovery of a type of denier in the Zafranales treasure (Pl. IIIa), may make us think that also Alfonso could have minted during his brother's, Peter I,  reign, as the last one did during their father Sancho Ramírez' life. Alfonso's early emissions, that appear in royal documents since 1096 could be the coins of the type of Zafranales,  this could explain the absence of this monetary type in Peter I's emissions.

Coins of the Aragonese dinasty are know from ancient times, the jaquese deniers of Sancho V Ramírez were drawn and commented, in the XVII^th century, by Lastanosa (1681) and Moret (1665). However, the first attributed both the coins to the Pamplonese king Sancho Abarca. Heiss described the piece with legend IACCA (Fig. 5; Plate. I-k) and three different types of deniers and obols, with legend ARAGON. San Pío y Ansón (1926), described 38 deniers, among which the type with legend ARAGONENSI, (whose obol has been recently published), and four different sorts of obols. Among the pieces preserved in private and public collections, is highly remarkable the great variety of dies. With reference to Peter I's coins, we can distinguish the issues made during Sancho Ramírez' lifetime, in this case the legend was PETRVSSANCII, but with no REX title, and with the mint named ARAGON and MONSON (Pl. IIa, b), there is also a new type (Fig. 9; Pl. IIc) with legend PETRVSSANCIVS REX, whose interpretation would be: "Peter (son) of the king Sancho", this coin would be part of an early emission. Heiss described, both in deniers as well as in obols, pieces with legend PETRVS REX and the face of the type of Sancho Ramírez, with reverse legend ARAGON. A denier of the first type recently appeared as part of a treasure of coins of Sancho Ramírez, the second type, with leyend “MONSON” was described by Vidal Quadras (1892), with the number 5272. The most common type of deniers and obols of Peter I , is a later type (Fig. 11; Pl. IIe-f) . The face style changes, and shows a typical bun, already described by Heiss and recorded in the later bibliographies. Sometimes, several types of Sancho Ramirez coins have been described, where in the reverse, and always in damaged pieces the cross of the reverse is substitued by a letter "P", and interpred as a mention to Peter I, which has led to some confussion, since this letter "P" doesn't really exist and is a bad interpretation of a damaged cross. Coins of Alfonso I, both with legend ARAGON (Fig. 13; Pl. IIIe), as well as ARAGONENSIS (Fig. 12; Pl. IIIa-d) already recopiled by Lastanosa, were later described and correctly atributed to Alfonso I  by Heiss, and some new variants interpreted by Vidal Quadras (numbers 5286-5287^bis). The obols belonging to the second type have been recently described (Pl. IIId’).

Plate I.- Coins of Sancho V Ramirez of Aragon & Pamplona. 

Plate II.- Coins of Pedro I of Aragon & Pamplona. 

Plate III.- Coins of Alfonso I of Aragon & Pamplona.

A medieval "agnostic" coin, in full Christian Reconquest

A medieval "agnostic" coin, in full Christian Reconquest.

Translation of an article published in Spanish: “El Eco Filatélico y Numismático”
(November 2000). Vol.56 (n. 1080): p.50.

In the Middle Ages, one of the main concerns of the Christian kings in the Iberian Peninsula, was the struggle against Islam, that as a powerful blaze spreaded throughout the known world. Hence, one of the principal objectives of European kings in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries was the reconquest of the Holy Places, under pressure from a society imbued with religious feeling and Christian life, pugnacious determination stretching from the king to the humblest of his subjects.

Currencies of Sancho VII of Navarre

This motivation led to the political leaders of the time to use the figure of the cross on their more specific emblems, such as signs and seals and royal money. In this environment, at a time of exacerbation of religious feeling, it's strange for a Christian monarch not  to include the figure of the cross on their coins, as the main reason on the obverse or reverse, or as an element of separation of legend , nor in its "signature" or royal sign. Add to this the presence in the currencies of a crescent surmounted by a star (symbols commonly used in the Muslim world), and we face an unprecedented event in the numismatics of medieval Christian kingdoms. We emphasize the importance of this numismatic evidence, since at this time we could deduce the identity of the author of coinage by the symbols or legends of the same. These coins were minted in abundance, both deniers and mites in the reign of King Sancho VII of Navarre, surnamed "the Strong", during a long reign of over forty years between 1194 and 1234, and went down in history for his role in the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa against Muslims.

At this time, we can find the figure of the crescent moon and star in the emissions of Raymond VI and Raymond VII (1194-1249), the counts of Toulouse (France), although in this case on the other side of the coin features a large cross, and also a small cross marks the separation of words in the legends (text that appears on the currency). On the coins of Sancho VII, this separation is made with points.

During this time, there are some curious anecdotes of the coins, such as frequent falsification of Almohad square dirhams by some Christians, so that the same Christian bishop of Melguell (southern France) coined Arab currency with Koranic texts and professing Muslim faith, a fact which was rejected by the Pope himself. However in this case they were imitations of the prestigious Muslim coin. When in the late twelfth century Alfonso VIII of Castile minted gold coins, he included a cross on the reverse, and Christian texts, but written with Arabic legends.

The figure of the king of Navarre Sancho VII "the Strong" has entered popular mythology from his decisive intervention in the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), where he defeated his former friend, Amir Muhammad ibn Ya'qub to Nasir (known by Christians as Miramamolín, abbreviation of its Arabic title of "Emir al-Mu'mineen") and from this historic event comes the shield of the chains of Navarre, introduced in mid-thirteenth century as a sign of identity of the Old Kingdom.

However, from the economic standpoint, this king has passed into history as the "banker to the kings”, banker as stated, minted their coins without using the cross symbol on them (an exceptional occurrence in the  medieval Christian coinage), and where it appears on the obverse the bust of the monarch, with the legend: SANCIVS REX, and on the reverse a crescent moon and star, with NAVARRORVM or NAVARRE legends. Sancho VII supported the bourgeois of Bayonne (France) and gave large sums to the king of Aragon, obtaining in return, collateral, numerous castles and villas (as Petilla of Aragon, Aragonese village that still belongs to Navarre).

Mausoleum and tomb of Sancho VII “the Strong” in Roncesvalles (Navarra)

It remains to establish the reasons why the Navarrese monarch dispensed with the use of the cross on his coins. Perhaps it could affect his friendship with the African emir (the nickname Miramamolín), with whom he spent long periods in North Africa, or perhaps the influence of Jewish bankers, who at that time controlled the economy of the kingdom and were the only capable of performing loans with interest or usury, activity prohibited to Christians because of scholastic economic ethics in those days, and only practiced by the Jews, which was precisely one of the causes of resentment against this group, source of persecution and killing of this group in the early fourteenth century.

Una moneda medieval “agnóstica” en plena Reconquista cristiana.

3.1.-Una moneda medieval “agnóstica” en plena Reconquista cristiana. (Noviembre, 2000) Eco Filat. y Numism. 56(1080): 50.

En plena Edad Media, una de las principales preocupaciones de los monarcas cristianos en la Península, era la lucha contra el Islám, que como poderosa llamarada se extendía por todo el mundo conocido. De ahí que uno de los obsesionantes objetivos de los reyes europeos en los siglos XII y XIII fuera la reconquista de los Santos Lugares, bajo la presión de una sociedad impregnada del sentimiento religioso y cristiano de la vida, belicosa determinación que abarcaba desde el rey hasta el más humilde de sus súbditos.

Esta motivación llevó a los dirigentes políticos de la época a utilizar la cruz en sus más específicos emblemas, desde los signos reales y sellos, hasta las acuñaciones monetarias. En este ambiente generalizado a lo largo y ancho de toda la cristiandad, en un momento de exacerbación del sentimiento religioso, resulta extraño que un monarca cristiano no incluyera la figura de la cruz en sus monedas, ni como motivo principal en el anverso o reverso, ni siquiera como elemento de separación o inicio de las leyendas monetales y tampoco en su “firma” o signo real. Si a esto añadimos la presencia en las monedas de una luna creciente superada por una estrella (simbología frecuentemente utilizada en el mundo musulmán)  nos encontramos ante un hecho sin precedentes en la numismática medieval de los reinos cristianos. Cabe insistir en la importancia de este dato numismático, puesto que en esta época podían deducirse las señas de identidad de quien ordenaba acuñar moneda por los símbolos o la leyenda que en ella hubiera reflejado. Estas monedas que se acuñaron en abundancia tanto en dineros como en óbolos, pertenecen al rey de Navarra Sancho VII, apodado “el Fuerte” que disfrutó de un largo reinado de más de cuarenta años entre 1194 y 1234 y que pasó a la Historia por su protagonismo en la batalla de las Navas de Tolosa.

Figura 1.-  Monedas de Sancho VII “el Fuerte”, rey de Navarra. 

La figura de la luna creciente y estrella la encontramos en esta época en las emisiones de los condes de Tolosa (Francia) Raimundo VI y Raimundo VII (1194-1249), si bien en este caso en la otra cara de la moneda figura una gran cruz, y además, en las leyendas (texto que aparece en la moneda)  una pequeña cruz marca la separación de las palabras. En las monedas de Sancho VII esta separación se realiza con puntos.

Durante esta época se producen algunas curiosas anécdotas referentes a las monedas, como por ejemplo la frecuente falsificación de los dirhems cuadradas almohades por parte de algunos cristianos, de forma que el mismo obispo de Melguell (sur de Francia) acuño gran cantidad de moneda árabe con textos del Corán y haciendo profesión de fé musulmana, hecho que fue reprobado por el mismo Papa. Sin embargo en este caso se trataba de imitaciones de la prestigiosa moneda musulmana y no de moneda propia. Cuando a finales del s. XII Alfonso VIII de Castilla acuñó monedas de oro, lo hizo presentando en el reverso una cruz, y con textos cristianos escritos con leyendas árabes.

La figura del monarca navarro Sancho VII “el Fuerte” ha pasado a la mitología popular a partir de su intervención decisiva en la batalla de las Navas de Tolosa (año 1212), donde cayó derrotado su antiguo amigo, el emir Muhammad ibn Ya’qub al Nasir (conocido por los cristianos como Miramamolín, abrebiatura de su título árabe de “Emir-al-mu’minin”) y de donde viene el escudo de las cadenas de Navarra, introducido a mediados del siglo XII como seña de identidad del Viejo Reino.

Sin embargo, desde el punto de vista económico, este monarca ha pasado a la historia como el “banquero de los reyes”, banquero que como se ha señalado emitió moneda en la que no figura el símbolo de la cruz (hecho excepcional en las acuñaciones cristianas medievales) y donde aparece el busto del monarca con la leyenda SANCIVS REX y en el reverso una luna creciente y estrella, con leyenda NAVARRE ó NAVARRORVM. Sancho VII apoyó a los burgueses de Bayona (Francia) y prestó cuantiosas sumas al rey de Aragón, obteniendo a cambio, en garantía, numerosos castillos y villas (como Petilla de Aragón, enclave aragonés que aún pertenece a Navarra).

Quedan por establecer las causas por las cuales el monarca navarro prescindió de la utilización de la cruz en sus monedas. Tal vez pudo influir su amistad con el emir africano (el apodado Miramamolín), con quien pasó largas temporadas, o tal vez la influencia de los banqueros judíos, que en esos momentos controlaban la economía del reino y eran los únicos capaces de realizar préstamos con intereses o usura, actividad prohibida por la ética económica escolástica en esos tiempos y que sólo practicaban los judíos, lo cual fue precisamente una de las causas de la animadversión contra este colectivo de desembocó en persecuciones y matanzas a comienzos del siglo XIV.   

Figura 2.- Sepulcro de Sancho VII “el Fuerte” en Roncesvalles (Navarra)

Imitations of Greek, Roman and Iberian coins in Gaul: Imitation of denarius "Baskunes" in Belgic Gaul.

Imitations of Greek, Roman and Iberian coins in Gaul: Imitation of denarius "Baskunes" in Belgic Gaul.  

Translation of an article published in Spanish: “El Eco Filatélico y Numismático”
(June 2007). Vol.62 (n. 1153): pp.60-61 & Ibid. (July-August 2007), Vol. 62 (n. 1154): pp. 56-58.

The term "Keltoi", or "Celtic" in Greek, first appears in the sixth century BC to refer to people living north of the Greek colony of Marseille, and the Romans designated with the name "Gauls" of a league to Celtic peoples who lived on the continent.

The first Celtic coins appeared in the second century before our era⁽¹⁾, and copied the figures appearing in the Macedonian gold coins of Philip II and Alexander the Great (382-336-323 AD) and probably brought in as payment on services to Gallic mercenaries returning to their land of origin (Figure 1).

 

Figure 1 .- Prototype staters of Philip II of Macedon (359-336 BC) and imitations of Ambiani gold, second century BC 

In a second step, as the probable result of trade with the Romans, the Gauls made their cash in silver pattern, based on the denarius of Rome, which in many areas replaced the former gold coin from the second half of century BC. During this time, a new type of lower monetary value appeared, the "Potin", coin cast in molds with an alloy of copper, lead and tin (Figure 2). Finally bronze coins arose in late period in Gaul (except in Narbonne, where it already existed, as in the Iberian Peninsula, due to Roman influence) to the years 70-60 BC, and in the northwest of the Gaul (Gaul Belgium many coins in various sanctuaries were minted.

 

Figure 2 .- Potins of Gaul. 

In many cases, other currencies such as the Massaliote drachma and Roman denarii were imitated (Figure 3), developed a varied typology which includes portraits, mythological figures and monsters and animals dominated by the horse and wild boar. Among the Celts of the Iberian Peninsula and the rest of the continent there is a noticeable stylistic difference, while the first reliably reflect the themes represented in the strictest of Greco-Roman artistic tradition, clearly indicating the name of the mint, the Celtic coins of the rest of Europe developed a personal style, traditionally described as "barbarian art", and which is but an abstract art very similar to that developed in the twentieth century, moreover, these currencies do not normally carry epigraphic information to identify the place of production.

Figure 3 .- a: Hispanic Denarius of Cornelius Lentulus (76-75 BC). b: Republican Denarius of  Fabatus Roscius (59 BC). c: Imitation of the Celts of the Danube the denarius of C. Lentulus. d. - A curious double imitation of the Celts of Pannonia, on one side of the denarius R. Fabatus, and the other from C. Lentulus.

In this article we focus on one of the Celtic peoples of Belgian Gaul, the tribe of the "Ambiani", which we can locate in the region surrounding the current village of Amiens in northern France. In this area were issued two series of coins that have unique characteristics, the first type and size imitates the Iberian denarius "Baskunes", although in this case the material used in its manufacture is bronze, not silver, and the second series mimics the previous currency iconography on the reverse, but substantially changed the obverse.

The question arises, how came the denarii "Baskunes" to this remote region of Belgian Gaul?, And why were imitated precisely these dinars?. But before attempting to answer these questions, we briefly analyze the characteristics of the Iberian mint of "Baskunes”.

For many years, researchers (linguists, numismatists and historians) have assumed that the term "Barskunes / Baskunes" is clearly identified as "Basques" who inhabited the area around Pamplona, a deduction which seems evident from the phonetic similarity between terms. But in recent years, things have been complicated somewhat due to an interesting discovery in the Iberian language⁽²⁾, that the suffix "-s" is not as was thought a nominative plural of an ethnic group, but the ablative singular of a toponymyc name!. Accordingly, the meaning of "Barskunes" becomes "to Barsku. That is, the mint or people who issued these coins would be called "Barsku" (or at a later Basku). This new interpretation presents us with two new issues, the first coin bearing the name can be interpreted as "for use by Barsku" or "made for Barsku" so we could think of traveling craftsmen, knowledgeable of the technology manufacture of coins, which would move through the area offering their services to the people of the area. These are likely not very large emissions, recruited more as a sign of prestige than as a genuine financial need, and this subtle way, little by little would be introduced in the habit of using the currency in pre-Roman populations that had never before used. This interpretation, which at the moment is a mere hypothesis, would explain the enormous similarities that occasionally we can find in images of different Iberian mints, since they are the same artesans who manufacture the coins for several different populations. The second question is that "Barskunes" would be a Celtic term to designate the people of "Barsku" (subsequently lost the letter "r"), possibly of Basque ethnic. When we speak in the Basque language now, in the original language should say "Euskara", ie that the term "Basque" is not "Basque", is "Euskara". The same may have happened more than two millennia ago, and could well be the Celtic border who coined this term (Basku-Basque) to denote a village inhabited by people of ethnic Basques who had not developed the writing. In fact the first explicit reference to the Basques is quite late and goes back to 76 BC in a quotation from Livio (XCI) referred to Sertorian wars. The other classical sources about the Basques are from a later period (Pliny, Strabo, Ptolemy .....). Besides the traditional location of the mint "Baskunes" in the vicinity of Pamplona today, other locations have been proposed as Rocaforte-Sangüesa (Canto, 1997), based on the name that the Arabs gave to this area, "Baskunsa "(very similar to the name of the mentioned city that issued  coins).

Another surprising fact is the vast amount of silver denarii  issued in the mint "Baskunes" in a period of less than a century, since they began to be manufactured, probably starting in the fall of Numancia (133 BC) until the end of indigenous emissions, after the battle of Munda (45 BC). This fact is justified only in a context of almost continuous war situation, where it was necessary to pay troops of indigenous mercenaries as allies against other peoples Celtiberian, and also in the civil wars that the Romans themselves staged in the Iberian Peninsula.

Among the coins minted in Gaul by the Celtic peoples, we find some curious bronze imitations of the denarius of the mint of "Baskunes", which have been found in excavations in some sanctuaries in northern France (as in that of Digeon). The first author to describe these coins is E. Lambert in 1864, who published a picture of this coin (Plate VIII, n. 18), but considers that it is an Iberian currency, and as such it has been transmitted in the literature until well into the twentieth century.

Figure 4 .- Denarii of the mint "Baskunes.

It is assumed that the first silver coins "Baskunes" began to be minted in the second half of the second century before our era, these early pieces were of good style (Figure 4a,b) and continued to be made to reach the copious emission of the first third of the first century BC, related with Sertorian wars (83 - 72 BC), where there are frequent little treasures of deniers that include coins of the mints of Baskunes, Sekobirikes and Turiasu (such as cave Usategi in Ataun, Gipuzkoa, N. Spain) . These late coinages have a more degenerate style, where for example the obverse bust in Baskunes denar has a large nose, and beard is resolved with a few heavy points (Figure 4c). This increase in the size of the nose is typical when the dies wear out and are manually retouched to prolong life. It is precisely one of these late emissions that the Celts used as a model of the Ambiani in northern Gaul (Figure 5).

Figure 5 .- Ambiani Celts imitations: "IMONIN bronzes".

The two types of emissions that copy the Iberic coin of Baskunes are very different and give us valuable clues about the manufacturing techniques used. In the first case ⁽³⁾, the perfect similarity, both obverse and reverse, among the bronzes "IMONIN" and its prototype denarii "Baskunes" leads us to think that these Iberian denarii could serve as a model or "Patriz" (Figure 5). From its own coins (denarii Baskunes) could be obtained the Matriz, possibly reproducing the dies in wax, surrounding them with clay to form the mold, which is then filled in with molten bronze, using the technique of lost wax used in antiquity. Some small changes were introduced in the  dies, as on the obverse: adding front of his face, a small snake or dragon, and below a circle inscribed with a point (which would be the Iberian syllable "Ku") by contrast in the legend on the reverse, the letter Iberian "Ku" lost its central point and became the Latin letter "O". Also on the back, amending the rider's head, making it more by highlighting the curious procedure, by a point, which becomes the eye, from which emerges a spiral line, placing in the top four small peaks which simulate hair of the head. Also changes the horse's tail and the last two letters of the Iberian legend "E" and "S" are converted to "I" and "N". All these changes could be easily added after obtaining the negative image (“Incusa”) into a soft material (wax or clay) from an original coin "Baskunes.

The second issue is completely different and was conducted with new dies, completely transforming the front, replacing the bust by a drawing a couple of “torqueses” in a central position and under them a necklace, topped with animal heads, above, figures of appearance plant and along the bottom, a series of semicircles with an interior point.. On the reverse remains the figure of the rider with his sword, though heavily modified, in this case appears the text "IMONO" where the letters "O" have the central point of the syllabic letter "Ku", as appears on the denarius Baskunes, but curiously not represented in the previous emission. This same symbol is also engraved on the back of the horse. In a coin (Figure 6d) a small figure under the horse appears, and there seems to be a bird head, which is also represented in some of the Celts emissions.

 

Figure 6 .- Ambiani Imitations of the denarius "Baskunes" called "small bronzes IMONO".

These two types of coins did not appear together, and occur in different geographical areas, while the first, the close imitation of the denarius Baskunes, is located north in the Department of the Somme in the Picardy (Digeon shrine in southwestern Amiens), the second type, termed "homotypia of contiguity" ⁽⁴⁾, occurs further south, in the department of "Seine-Maritime (Rouen findings) and according to this, it would be a further issue that the first imitation copies. But one fact to consider is the conservation in these pieces (IMONO bronzes) of the Iberian syllabic letter "ku" in the legend on the reverse, which had disappeared in the previous type (IMONIN bronzes). This fact allows us to raise another hypothesis, the denarius "Baskunes" was imitated at the same time in two areas close independently and using different techniques in the first case (IMONIN) using deniers themselves as punches to make the stamps, and the second (IMONO) opening new dies, which allowed the operation to introduce major changes in the grounds, preserving in this case only the figure of the reverse of the Baskunes denarius.

These are not the only issues where horsemen are in the currencies issued by the Celts of Belgian Gaul, we also see the rider carrying a "falx" sickle of war or similar to the Iberian emissions of mints from "Oilaunikos "and" Umanbaate "(Figure 7), the latter also located in Basque territory, although in this case we can not prove that emissions are copied to these Iberian mints.

Figure 7 .- a: Bronze Ambiani with rider wearing the falx. b: Aes of the mint Umanbaate (Navarra, Spain).

As for the dating of the imitations of Baskunes denarius, the most relevant data come from the excavations of the sanctuary Digeon (Somme), where it appeared several pieces of the first type in an archaeological context (along with brooches and Roman coins) ⁽⁵⁾ that permit dating for these emissions, between 40 and 70 of our era, ie a century after it ceased production of the Iberian currency "Baskunes" (in 45 BC) and that the Gaul had been completely conquered by Caesar (51 BC). Paradoxically, while the Celts were still coining this imitation of  Iberian coinage, near the place of the prototype (Baskunes), numerous Roman Cascantvm ases were issued in the time of Emperor Tiberius. The Ambiani imitations were manufactured probably during the reign of the emperors Claudius and Nero!.

It may surprise the different timing of the denarii Baskunes (first century BC) and his gallic imitations (first century AD), but for example we saw previously how the Greek gold stater of Philip II and Alexander the Great, were imitated by Ambiani no less than two centuries later!.

⁽¹⁾ Traditionally been considered  the first gold gallic coins were produced  in the third century BC, but recently has been delayed this timeline based on metrological studies.

⁽²⁾ VILLAR, F. (1995). Estudios de celtibérico y de toponimia prerromana. Univ. Salamanca, 276 pp.

⁽³⁾ IBÁÑEZ, M., 1993. Relations entre la Gaule belgique et la Celtibérie. Bull. Soc. Fr. Numismatique. 48(5): 564‑566.

⁽⁴⁾ DELESTRÉE, L.P., 1996. Monnayages et peuples gaulois du Nord-Ouest. Ed. Errance. Paris: 144 pp.

⁽⁵⁾ DELPLACE, Ch., 1987. Monnaies du sanctuaire de Digeon (Somme). En: Monnaies gauloises découvertes en fouilles. Dossier de Protohistoire 1: 125-137.