Money to "buy" the name.
Translation of an article
published in Spanish: “El Eco Filatélico
y Numismático”
(May 2008). Vol.64 (n. 1163): pp.60-61.
The human heads were considered as
trophies from the ancient Celts to the modern "headhunters" in
Oceania. They were too valuable and precious to be regarded as
"currency", and came to be part of the most sacred and non-transferable
objects (Figure 1), but seems to have
been a "currency" which represented or had the value of a human head.
In Africa, some knives as
"Mbulu" of Zaire, whose original function was to behead the prisoners
in ritual ceremonies, were also used as currency in payment of dowries (a dowry
often reached 20 knives)(1). In this case the same object
presented two very different functions, but is among the
"headhunters" in New Guinea where we find the money that has an even
more macabre use.
Until relatively recently,
Marind-amin of Irian Jaya (Figure 2),
people who lived in southern New Guinea, carried out expeditions to hunt for
"names"(2) for their children. In fact, the Australian
government claimed before the Netherlands (responsible for the geographical
area where they played the "headhunters") to control this practice,
and finally installed a police post in Merauke in 1902 to avoid predatory
activities of their people(3). According to the ritual, Marind-Amin
moved some distance from their villages to reach areas inhabited by people of
other languages, then caught some unsuspecting resident, and asked him what his
name was while holding him by the hair (4). The terrified words
coming from the mouth of the prisoner -which of course did not understand what
was asked-, were considered the same name, and immediately his head was cut
with a sharp knife, made exclusively from bamboo ("sok").
Figure 2.- |
But in
return, next to the victim's decapitated body an object was deposited (which
can be considered as a "currency"). Victims could not be beheaded, and could not
even ask his name, until after his head had been struck with a club ritual
called "pahui" or "baratu", consisting of a discoidal stone
attached to a handle, and finished on top by a delicate and artistic carved
wooden figure. With the coup, the figure was separated from the club, and only
then could start the bloody and macabre ritual. The decoration of the club is
left with the body as a kind of compensation, and the head-hunters were
returning to their village carrying the head, and most importantly, the
"name" associated with it. The skulls were deposited in a special hut
(Figure 3), and it was not uncommon
to see children, wearing as a necklace, the jaws of those unfortunates who came
from their name. It is clear that these children would take as a name, a plea
for mercy or maybe some reproach or insult in other languages, last words of
the victims before being violently beheaded. When Holland took over
administration of the area, found - in the early twentieth century-, fifteen
thousand names with this macabre origin, which means that in one generation was
produced at least this amount of ritual murders among the neighboring tribes in
the interior(5).
Figure 3: Accumulation of "trophy heads" in Sanga, Marind-amin village (1913) |
With regard to the objects used as
"currency", the decorated ceremonial club, a few specimens are
preserved in ethnographic museums of Amsterdam, Leiden and Rome, proceding of
ethnographic expeditions undertaken from the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries(6). The origins of these brutal customs must be
sought in the personal prestige, which is defeating the enemy, taking away the
most precious, his own head. Curiously, the value in this case is not the head
itself, it is the name associated with it, a name that cannot be appropriated
and should be given or transferred to another person, whether the son himself
or another child who lacks it. This act of donation implies an increased their
social prestige in the group. The French anthropologist S. Breton has realized
an interesting study comparing the role of "head-name" of Marind-amin
with the "shell money" used as currency by Wodani people in symbolic
exchanges, while in the first case the head is a metonymy for the word
collected, from which it derives a name, a metaphor in turn on the identity of
the person receiving it, for Wodani people, shell-money is itself a metaphor of
the person(7).
Figure 4: Ceremonial clubs used as "currency" for the "headhunters." |
Until recently, the frequent wars
and rapine among populations of New Guinea were part of the social system (as
Paul Sillitoe anthropologists have defined as "ecological warfare")
but have been progressively replaced by "festivals", that are peaceful
meetings from different villages of the region. In these "Sing Sing"
the differences between neighboring villages are resolved by ritual dances,
differences which were previously resolved by tribal wars and bloodshed. In
certain regions such as Highland, sight and exoticism of these celebrations are
an excellent source of tourist attraction. In reality, our "Western
civilization" is not so different, we use with the same purpose football
and other competitive sports, and when we make war, is also often motivated by
"ecological" causes (better "anti-ecological") as the
control of the valuable natural resources (Iraq War, wars in Africa promoted by
large multinational companies ...).
(1) Ibáñez, M., 2001. Monedas singulares: Monedas-Armas
II. Cuchillos y lanzas africanas. Eco
Filat. y Numism. Vol. 57(n. 1087): p. 44.
(2) In many cultures, the name is very valuable, and most non-European languages, the word "name" is synonymous with fame or reputation.
(3) Zegwaard, G. A., 1959. Headhunting Practices of the Asmat of Netherlands New Guinea. Amer. Anthropol. 61 (6): pp. 1020-1041.
(4) These macabre rituals are documented in the work of J. Van Baal: “Dema. Description and analysis of Marind-Anim culture (
(5) Zegwaard, G.A., 1959. Headhunting Practices of the Asmat of Netherlands New Guinea. Amer. Anthropol. 61 (6): 1020-1041.
(6) Grottanelli, V. I., 1951. On the "Mysterious" baratu Clubs from Central New Guinea. Man 51: pp. 105-107, and Kooijman, S., 1952. The Fuction and Significance of Some Ceremonial Clubs of've Marind Amin, Dutch New Guinea. Man 52: pp. 97-99. It is unclear the role of these clubs, although they are related to the rituals of "headhunting" but respond well to the descriptions of the objects used in this macabre ritual when anthropologists describing these customs.
Ibáñez, M, 2008. Monedas para “comprar” el nombre. Gaceta Numismática, 168: 57-64.
(7) Breton, S., 1999: Le spectacle des choses. Considérations mélanésiennes sur la personne. L’Homme 149: pp. 83-112.
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